аЯрЁБс>ўџ 46ўџџџ3џџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџьЅС%` №П*bjbj"x"x 1@@Б xџџџџџџЄppppppp„( ( ( 8` l „jЖ” ” ” ” ” o o o щыыыыыы$ hˆЪpo o o o o pp” ” л$eeeo тp” p” щeo щee:,ppY” ˆ 0#2Бy4Щ( QˆE \:0jO Rй|RYRpY4o o eo o o o o Uo o o jo o o o „„„Є( „„„( „„„ppppppџџџџ 1. Describe the mechanism by which electron transport from NADH and flavin coenzymes to molecular oxygen is coupled to the synthesis of ATP. 2. Measurements of the ratio of ATP formed per pair of electrons transferred from NADH to O2 is usually less than 3. Similarly the ration of ATP/2e( is usually less than 2. Can you explain these numbers? What factors might affect the number molecules of ATP formed during the reoxidation of NADH and reduced flavin coenzymes? 3. During physical exertion, the rate of ATP utilization increases greatly. What effect would this have on the citric acid cycle? Explain your answer. 4. The uncoupling agent, 2.4-dinitrophenol is highly toxic to humans, causing a marked increase in metabolism and body temperature, profuse sweating, and sometimes collapse and death. For a brief period in the 1940s, however, 2,4-dinitrophenol was given in sublethal doses to produce weight loss. Explain why administration of 2,4-dinitrophenol results in increased metabolic rate as evidenced by increased O2 consumption. The first law of thermodynamics is called “The Law of Conservation of Energy”. How does it explain the observation that the injestion of 2,4-dinitrophenol leads to hyperthermia (elevated body temperature) and sweating. 5. Explain why ADP and inorganic phosphate are preferentially transported from the cytosol into the mitochondrial matrix and why ATP is preferentially transported in the opposite direction. 6. In the first half of the last century, Sir Hans Krebs began his historic studies that led to his discovery of the citric acid cycle. A key result was his finding that the addition of citrate, isocitrate or dicarboxylic acids like succinate or malate to a suspension of mitochondria resulted in a large increase in the rate of substrate oxidation as measured by oxygen consumption (reduction of oxygen to water). Not only did the rate of oxygen consumption by the mitochondria increase, but the total amount of oxygen consumed greatly exceeded what would be expected for the amount of the added substrate (citrate, isocitrate, succinate or malate). The excess oxygen consumption was clearly due to the presence of endogenous substrates in the mitochondrial suspension whose oxidation was enhanced by the addition of exogenous substrates like citrate and malate. This, and related findings, led him to propose the existence of the citric acid cycle. Explain why citrate and the other substrates studied by Sir Hans Krebs were capable of increasing the rate of oxidation of endogenous substrates present within his mitochondrial suspensions. Does the cyclical nature of the citric acid cycle account for this behavior? Explain.     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